Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： As a generative learning activity, learning by non-interactive teaching refers to learners play the role of teachers and teach what they have learned to others, and the activity is designed to help learners actively engage in knowledge building and improve their academic performance. For example, learners face a video camera to explain the learning material to imaginary, non-present peers in their minds (i.e., recording an instructional video). Given the vastly different ways in which learning by non-interactive teaching was implemented (e.g., video, audio, and text), the effectiveness of learning by non-interactive teaching in facilitating learning might be different. By summarizing the relevant studies, it was found that learning by non-interactive teaching in oral form with a tutor figure (e.g. video) was more effective in improving learner’s performance (d immediate comprehension = 0.56, d delayed comprehension = 0.63, d immediate transfer = 0.35, and d delayed transfer = 0.76) compared with simple learning activities such as restudy and retrieval practice, which was probably a better implementation. Learning by non-interactive teaching in oral form (e.g. audio only, d immediate comprehension = 0.09 and d immediate transfer = 0.02) or written form (e.g. text, d immediate comprehension = -0.16, d delayed comprehension = 0.39, d immediate transfer = 0.08, and d delayed transfer = 0.19) without a tutor figure had a smaller positive effect on learning outcomes. Learners with non-interactive teaching also experienced higher motivation (d = 0.44) and enjoyment (d = 0.76) and were willing to invest more mental effort (d = 0.47). The retrieval practice hypothesis and the generative learning hypothesis focused on different subcomponents of cognitive processing (e.g., retrieval, generation, or monitoring) to explain the positive effects of learning by non-interactive teaching on learning, respectively. The social presence hypothesis emphasized that social presence might facilitate whole cognitive processing and thus improved learning. Our results supported these three hypotheses to some extent. In addition, the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML) may provide a supplementary explanation for differences in the effectiveness of different implementations of learning by non-interactive teaching. On the one hand, learning by non-interactive teaching (e.g., video) might successfully create teaching situation that stimulated a moderate sense of social presence and leaded learners to be more engaged and think more deeply about the material, i.e., increased their essential processing and generative processing, and thus facilitated learning. On the other hand, learning by non-interactive teaching (e.g., text) might distract learners from focusing too much on the typos, the standardization and rigorousness of written language, i.e., increased their extraneous processing. Due to the inherently high demands for processing capacity in generative activities, too much extraneous processing might cause learners' limited processing capacity being insufficient for adequate essential processing and generative processing, which in turn impaired learning. While learning by non-interactive teaching in the audio-only format might neither successfully facilitate learning with essential processing and generative processing because of the weaker teaching situation created, nor hinder learning with extraneous processing because of the automated spoken language. Research is needed to test and integrate theories, identify boundary conditions, and enhance the effectiveness of learning by non-interactive teaching in the future.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： The eye gaze of instructors is an important but easily overlooked element in video-based learning environments. The importance of the potential roles of eye gaze can be explained by several theories, such as parasocial theory and social agent theory. These theories suggest that an instructor’s eye gaze in video-based learning environments can promote learning. Other theories such as cognitive theory of multimedia learning and cognitive load theory suggest that an instructor’s eye gaze may hinder learning. While these theories predict the effect of an instructor’s eye gaze differently, in this review article we found inconsistencies in several empirical studies. First, the retention and transfer tests are mainly used to gauge the learning outcome. On retention tests, 9 (60%) of 15 studies show that eye gaze in the video can improve students' retention test, and 6 studies (40%) show that eye gaze can hinder students' performance on retention tests. The median effect size for the eye gaze facilitated retention test was d = 0.41. The median effect sizes for the guided gaze and direct gaze facilitated retention tests were d = 0.28 and d = 0.42. On the transfer test, 6 (40%) of 15 studies show that eye gaze in the video can improve students' transfer test, 1 study (7%) shows that eye gaze can reduce students’ performance on a transfer test, and 8 studies (53%) show that eye gaze can hinder students' performance on transfer tests. The median effect size for the eye gaze facilitated transfer tests was d = 0.39. The median effect sizes for the guided gaze and direct gaze facilitated transfer tests were d = 0.24 and d = 0.42. The above study showed a small facilitative effect of eye gaze on retention and transfer tests. Second, in terms of attentional processing, previous studies have focused on the learner's fixation times on learning materials. 6 (38%) of 16 studies show that eye gaze in the video can increase students' fixation times on learning material, 7 studies (44%) show that eye gaze can reduce students’ fixation times on learning material, and 6 studies (38%) show that eye gaze can hinder students' fixation times on learning material. The median effect size for the eye gaze facilitated fixation times on learning material was d = 0.06. The median effect sizes for the guided gaze and direct gaze facilitated fixation times were d = 0.19 and d =﹣0.14.The above studies suggest that the effect of eye gaze on attentional processing is relatively weak. Third, in terms of subjective experience, parasocial interactions and cognitive load were mainly explored. For the parasocial interaction, 5 (56%) of 9 studies show that eye gaze in the video can improve students' parasocial interaction, and 4 studies (44%) show that eye gaze can hinder students' retention test. The median effect size for the eye gaze facilitated parasocial interaction was d = 0.35. The median effect sizes for the guided gaze and direct gaze facilitated parasocial interaction were d = 0.04 and d = 0.37. Regarding cognitive load, 3 (33%) of 9 studies show that eye gaze in the video can reduce students' cognitive load, and 6 studies (44%) show that eye gaze can increase students' cognitive load. The median effect size for the eye gaze facilitated cognitive load was d =﹣0.02. The median effect sizes for the guided gaze and direct gaze facilitated cognitive load were d = -0.03 and d = 0.09. The above study showed a small facilitative effect of eye gaze on parasocial interaction, but a very weak effect on cognitive load. In addition, the above findings support the parasocial interaction theory, social agency theory, and signaling principle, but not the cognitive theory of multimedia learning or the cognitive load theory. Future research needs to consider the moderating role of the type of eye gaze, facial expressions, prior knowledge experience, and the nature of the learned material. Further exploration is needed for the cognitive processing of eye gaze affecting learning and the related cognitive neural activity.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： In video-based learning environments, the roles of real human teachers are important. There are different theoretical explanations for their roles, such as parasocial theory, social presence theory and social agent theory. These theories suggest that real human teachers in video-based learning environments promote learning; Other theories such as cognitive theory of multimedia learning and cognitive load theory believe that real human teachers may hinder learning. By examining past research, we found that teachers have a weak effect on the promotion of video-based learning, specifically the week effect are on knowledge retention (d = 0.23) and knowledge transfer (d = 0.1); We also found that, teachers have moderate and large influence on subjective experience of video learning, especially on perceived learning (d = 0.49), learning interest (d = 0.5), and learning satisfaction (d = 2.21); Another finding from the literature review is that with the presence of teachers in video-based learning, learners may decrease their attentions to learning material (d = -2.02). Our review of the literature suggests that future research still needs to pay close attention to the presentation of human teachers as a function of learner characteristics, learning material characteristics, and measurement methods in video learning.
Subjects: Psychology >> Educational Psychology submitted time 2022-12-05
Abstract：
Learning by non-interactive teaching refers to learners play the role of teachers and teach what they have learned to others. The retrieval practice hypothesis, the generative learning hypothesis, and the social presence hypothesis explained the positive effects of learning by non-interactive teaching from the perspectives of memory consolidation, generative cognitive processing, and social presence, respectively. Summarizing the relevant studies, it was found that different implementations of learning by non-interactive teaching promoted learning differently, with learning by non-interactive teaching in oral form with a tutor figure (e.g. video) was more effective in improving learners' immediate comprehension, immediate transfer, delayed comprehension, and delayed transfer performance compared to simple learning activities such as restudy and retrieval practice, which was probably a better implementation. Learning by non-interactive teaching in oral form (e.g. audio only) or written form (e.g. text) without a tutor figure had a smaller positive effect on learning outcomes. The cognitive theory of multimedia learning may provide a supplementary explanation for differences in the effectiveness of different implementations of learning by non-interactive teaching. Learners who learned by non-interactive teaching also experienced higher motivation and enjoyment and were willing to invest more mental effort. Future research is needed to test and integrate theories, identify boundary conditions, and enhance the effectiveness of learning by non-interactive teaching.
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