Subjects: Psychology >> Developmental Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： The process of individual’s risk perception on medical information can be understood from the perspective of information processing. The influencing factors of risk perception on medical information are categorized into three aspects, namely, the source of medical information, the content and form of medical information, and the subject of information processing. The cognitive mechanism of individual’s risk perception on medical information was discussed based on experience-analysis processing theory and verbatim-gist processing theory. This study recommends increased attention to balance the general and specific studies of risk perception on medical information. Moreover, the standard and specific measurements should be combined, and research in the context of China’s medical system should be expanded. Furthermore, a series of theoretical and empirical research should be developed, and preventive measures and evidence-based supporting policies must be established.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： The eye gaze of instructors is an important but easily overlooked element in video-based learning environments. The importance of the potential roles of eye gaze can be explained by several theories, such as parasocial theory and social agent theory. These theories suggest that an instructor’s eye gaze in video-based learning environments can promote learning. Other theories such as cognitive theory of multimedia learning and cognitive load theory suggest that an instructor’s eye gaze may hinder learning. While these theories predict the effect of an instructor’s eye gaze differently, in this review article we found inconsistencies in several empirical studies. First, the retention and transfer tests are mainly used to gauge the learning outcome. On retention tests, 9 (60%) of 15 studies show that eye gaze in the video can improve students' retention test, and 6 studies (40%) show that eye gaze can hinder students' performance on retention tests. The median effect size for the eye gaze facilitated retention test was d = 0.41. The median effect sizes for the guided gaze and direct gaze facilitated retention tests were d = 0.28 and d = 0.42. On the transfer test, 6 (40%) of 15 studies show that eye gaze in the video can improve students' transfer test, 1 study (7%) shows that eye gaze can reduce students’ performance on a transfer test, and 8 studies (53%) show that eye gaze can hinder students' performance on transfer tests. The median effect size for the eye gaze facilitated transfer tests was d = 0.39. The median effect sizes for the guided gaze and direct gaze facilitated transfer tests were d = 0.24 and d = 0.42. The above study showed a small facilitative effect of eye gaze on retention and transfer tests. Second, in terms of attentional processing, previous studies have focused on the learner's fixation times on learning materials. 6 (38%) of 16 studies show that eye gaze in the video can increase students' fixation times on learning material, 7 studies (44%) show that eye gaze can reduce students’ fixation times on learning material, and 6 studies (38%) show that eye gaze can hinder students' fixation times on learning material. The median effect size for the eye gaze facilitated fixation times on learning material was d = 0.06. The median effect sizes for the guided gaze and direct gaze facilitated fixation times were d = 0.19 and d =﹣0.14.The above studies suggest that the effect of eye gaze on attentional processing is relatively weak. Third, in terms of subjective experience, parasocial interactions and cognitive load were mainly explored. For the parasocial interaction, 5 (56%) of 9 studies show that eye gaze in the video can improve students' parasocial interaction, and 4 studies (44%) show that eye gaze can hinder students' retention test. The median effect size for the eye gaze facilitated parasocial interaction was d = 0.35. The median effect sizes for the guided gaze and direct gaze facilitated parasocial interaction were d = 0.04 and d = 0.37. Regarding cognitive load, 3 (33%) of 9 studies show that eye gaze in the video can reduce students' cognitive load, and 6 studies (44%) show that eye gaze can increase students' cognitive load. The median effect size for the eye gaze facilitated cognitive load was d =﹣0.02. The median effect sizes for the guided gaze and direct gaze facilitated cognitive load were d = -0.03 and d = 0.09. The above study showed a small facilitative effect of eye gaze on parasocial interaction, but a very weak effect on cognitive load. In addition, the above findings support the parasocial interaction theory, social agency theory, and signaling principle, but not the cognitive theory of multimedia learning or the cognitive load theory. Future research needs to consider the moderating role of the type of eye gaze, facial expressions, prior knowledge experience, and the nature of the learned material. Further exploration is needed for the cognitive processing of eye gaze affecting learning and the related cognitive neural activity.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Emotion regulation is an essential ability to maintain individual mental health and life happiness. Cognitive reappraisal is one of the most effective emotion regulation strategies. Cognitive reappraisal inventiveness is a central component of the generation process in the context of cognitive reappraisal. It is the ability to create multiple and different reappraisals for negative situations. The total number and diversity of cognitive reappraisal strategies produced by individuals in cognitive reappraisal (i.e., the fluency and flexibility of cognitive reappraisal strategies) are taken as indicators of cognitive reappraisal inventiveness. A high creative cognitive reappraisal is an effective premise for ensuring individual emotional regulation. Here, we review recent studies on cognitive reappraisal inventiveness. A large body of research demonstrates that inventiveness in cognitive reappraisal is positively correlated with divergent thinking and openness, but not with neuroticism and trait anger. Creative cognitive reappraisal strategies, or high-level cognitive reconstruction using metaphor and analogy, are more conducive to the regulation of negative emotions, and the superior regulatory effect of creative cognitive reappraisal can be mediated by amygdala-based salient emotional arousal, hippocampus-based new association formation, and striatum-based mental rewarding to produce to a novel and positive experience that can be kept in long-term memory. These results are consistent with the creative reconstruction theory of cognitive reappraisal. The theory holds that an individual’s response to negative situations comes not from the event itself, but from their view of the event. Emotional situations are viewed as problems that can be solved by a variety of reappraisal styles. To regulate negative emotions, it is necessary to produce a novel and effective psychological representation of the emotional situation or event, modifying the initial maladaptive representation. Creative individuals may be more likely to find effective reappraisals. However, other studies claim that there is no correlation between cognitive reappraisal inventiveness and reappraisal effectiveness. Thus, no consistent conclusion about the relationship between cognitive reappraisal inventiveness and reappraisal effectiveness has yet been reached. By comparing the neural mechanisms of cognitive reappraisal inventiveness (using the Reappraisal Inventiveness Test, RIT) and traditional creativity (using the Alternative Use Test, AUT), it was found that both, the RIT and AUT, exhibited a comparatively strong increase in alpha power at prefrontal sites, indicating that they have similar brain activation patterns; however, the activation degree of cognitive reappraisal inventiveness is higher in the middle region of the prefrontal cortex, whereas the activation degree of traditional creativity is higher in the ventral prefrontal apex region. The regions of brain activation of the two forms of creativity overlap primarily in the right cerebellum, central anterior gyrus, central posterior gyrus, and anterior cingulate cortex, especially in the left prefrontal network. Cognitive reappraisal inventiveness activates the right superior frontal gyrus, middle frontal gyrus, right middle temporal gyrus, and left and right angular gyrus. Traditional creativity tasks primarily activate the left superior frontal gyrus, left inferior temporal gyrus, and left inferior frontal gyrus. This shows that traditional creativity and cognitive reappraisal inventiveness have common cognitive processing needs, including inhibiting strong responses, switching between different perspectives, and controlling memory retrieval; however, the process of cognitive reappraisal inventiveness requires the specific executive function of emotional representation. Future research may expand the group of participants by selecting participants with emotional disorders (e.g., depression and anxiety disorders), improve the measurement methods of cognitive reappraisal inventiveness, explore the situational and internal factors that affect cognitive reappraisal inventiveness (e.g., positive metaphor, trait anxiety, self-efficacy, and humorous personality), and further reveal how the neural mechanisms of the special process, or reaction mechanism of cognitive reappraisal inventiveness, differ from traditional creativity.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Attentional capture refers to the phenomenon that task-related stimuli unconsciously capture attention and get priority processing in attentional orientation. Attentional control Settings (ACS) can guide attention to task-related stimuli, and then preferentially process it. When target is defined as a category composed of multiple objects, the attention system will form category-specific attentional control settings (cACS). Investigating the mechanism of cACS in attentional capture can not only expand and enrich previous theoretical research, but also provide basis and guidance for real life. The present study reviewed the characteristics of cACS. Firstly, related to the processing stage of cACS, some previous studies claimed it occurred at an early stage, while others thought it happened at a late stage. Two-stage hypothesis combined these two views and postulated that different cACS can guide attention independently at the early stage, and then integrate into one single cACS at the late stage. In addition, cACS can also be preactivated in the preattentive stage to improve the subsequent search efficiently. Secondly, relative to the processing weight of cACS, the attributes (e.g., color, size, shape or motion) of category, the size of items in category and the abstraction of categorical hierarchy were proven to be the impact factors of the processing weight of cACS. Specifically, the processing weight of cACS was lower than the feature-specific attentional control settings (fACS). The weight of color-specific cACS was larger than that of other cACSs. The weight of cACS was reduced along with a larger size of items in category. And the weight of superordinate-level cACS was lower than that of subordinate-level cACS. Thirdly, relative to the involved brain regions of cACS, we summarized the previous functional brain imaging research and found object-selective cortex (OSC) involved the processing of extracting cACS stored in long-term memory and selecting target/inhibiting distractor. Finally, we summarized the neural mechanisms of cACS in attentional capture. Firstly, cACS can preactivate in the early preattentive stage of processing to promote the detection of categorical stimuli (as the involvement of OSC). When the visual stimulus is occurred, cACS can compare the current stimulus to the definition of target (as the index of N1 and P1 components), the frontal parietal network (PFC, LIP, etc.) involve in the category judgment process, and the left superior temporal sulcus (lSTS) participate in the integration of top-down and bottom-up processing. The stimulus that matches target definition can induce attentional capture (as the index of N2pc component), while the stimulus that mismatches the target definition can elicit attentional inhibition (as the index of PD component). When cACS engage in visual search task, the processing weight of attention is affected by different attributes (color, shape, etc.), item size within category, category hierarchy. In addition, if the target is defined as multiple cACS (e.g., a digit with warm color), the different dimensions of cACS (e.g., symbol and color ) will affect attentional capture independently at the early stage, and then these two independent cACS can be integrated into one cACS in the late stage. In the late stage, the consolidation in working memory (as the index of CDA component) and the behavioral response (as the index of accuracy and response time and the involvement of SMA and precuneus) are involved. Future studies can focus on the categorical rejection template for distractors, the various effects of different types of cACS in attentional capture, and the mechanism of artificial cACS.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Attentional bias towards threat information is a common phenomenon in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) individuals. A number of studies have investigated the processing characteristics and internal mechanisms of attentional bias by using eye-movement technology. it is found that factors influenced the three components are distinct. First, facilitated attention is the consequence by the interaction of the threat stimulus type and the eye movement indicators. PTSD individuals are more likely to be alert to threat words, which is not only related to the interference of pictures and words in the recognition process, but also affected by arousal, salience and complexity of stimulus. Furthermore, the smaller visual angle presented in previous studies may also accelerate the attentional capture of threat words. In addition, the inconsistent selection of eye movement measures may also cause the difference of the results of attention directed acceleration: the first fixation latency is not sensitive to the component due to the inability to measure the apparent eye movement. Moreover, the spatial indicators are more suitable to investigate this processing to threat words, but pupil index is more appropriate to threat pictures. Second, PTSD individuals do not have the difficulty in attention disengagement to threat words. It may be related to preview, information density, and unconscious binding. Words preview leads to rapid processing; however, it is not available to continuously capture the attention because of low information density. Besides, the unconscious binding of “static-words” also makes it difficult to show the difficulty in attention disengagement to threat words. Third, the absence of attentional avoidance to threat information may be a long-term self-protection strategy adopted by PTSD individuals, and this result will not be affected by analysis methods, stimuli types, and presentation time. Therefore, it is more likely to be the mechanism of “facilitated attention - difficulty in attention disengagement”. Indeed, compared with behavioral response time, eye tracking technology can monitor the time course of attention while PTSD individuals look at the threat stimuli. On the one hand, it can deeply understand the attention characteristics of PTSD individuals caused by different types of traumatic events, and on the other hand, it can verify relevant attention-biased stage theory. From the observation of phenomenon to the theoretical construction, it is a more comprehensive investigation of the attentional bias processing mechanism to this type of affective disorder. Future research may also should to pay attention to the following aspects. First of all, whether researchers can maximize the advantages of eye movement technology is still worth discussing. They can construct the unique attentional bias eye movement pattern and corresponding eye movement model of PTSD individuals from multiple dimensions based on the perspective of eye movement mechanism, for example, age. The PTSD rate of American children and adolescents is higher than that of American adults caused by the same experience, and compared with PTSD adults, PTSD children will show more hypervigilance and traumatic memories of repeated intrusions. In addition, the immaturity of the eye physiological system of children and adolescents may lead to more limitations or inconsistent eye movement patterns. The superposition of these differences may cause heterogeneity in the eye movement patterns of attentional bias between different PTSD groups. Consequently, it is necessary to construct corresponding attentional bias eye movement patterns and theoretical models from the age level for researchers. Second, when researchers make full use of eye tracking technology to investigate PTSD attention bias, they also need to combine multiple technologies to investigate the threat attention bias mechanism of PTSD individuals from a multimodal perspective, such as physiological indicators, event-related potentials, and so on.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-27 Cooperative journals: 《心理学报》
Abstract： In the process of reading, readers mainly obtain information through the fovea region—in particular, the parafovea plays an important role in information acquisition. Readers can obtain certain information from the parafovea through previewing processing, thus promoting the improvement of reading efficiency, which is called the “previewing effect”. The effect of the processing load of the fovea on the previewing effect of parafovea has become a popular research focus of late. For example, studies based on alphabetic languages have found that the previewing effect of the parafovea is greater for high-frequency and short words than for low-frequency and the long words. While Tibetan is an analphabetic language, it also belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family and has many similarities with Chinese. However, it is still largely unclear how to reflect the above role in the process of Tibetan reading. Will it only show the common characters of alphabetic languages or will it show some Chinese characteristics? The present study aimed to provide experimental evidence to respond to these research questions. Two experiments were carried out on 119 Tibetan undergraduate students. More specifically, participants were asked to read Tibetan sentences and their eye movements during reading were recorded using an SR Research EyeLink 1000Plus eye tracker (sampling rate = 1000 Hz). Experiment 1 manipulated the fovea word frequency (i.e., high vs. low frequency) to investigate the word frequency effect and word frequency delay effect of fovea words in Tibetan reading. The results showed a word frequency effect and a word frequency delay effect in Tibetan reading. Experiment 2 manipulated both fovea word frequency and parafovea previewing word types with the aid of boundary paradigm to investigate the previewing effect of parafovea and the effect of fovea word frequency on the previewing effect of parafovea in Tibetan reading. The results showed a previewing effect of parafovea in Tibetan reading and that, when compared with low-frequency fovea words, high-frequency fovea words had a greater promoting effect on the previewing effect of parafovea.The primary findings can be summarized as follows: (1) significant word frequency effect exists in Tibetan reading, which is reflected in the whole process of vocabulary processing; (2) there is a significant word frequency delay effect in Tibetan reading, which runs through the whole process of vocabulary processing; (3) there is a significant previewing effect of parafovea in Tibetan reading, through which the reader can extract speech and font information; and (4) in Tibetan reading, fovea word frequency affects the size of the previewing effect of parafovea—moreover, word frequency only affects the extraction of shape previewing information in the early stage of lexical processing, that is, the previewing effect of high-frequency words is greater under the condition of shape previewing.In conclusion, the effect of the processing load of the fovea on the previewing effect of parafovea shows the common characteristics of alphabetic languages in Tibetan reading. In addition, this study found that reading Tibetan involves the word frequency delay effect and the previewing effect of parafovea; these findings support the theory of parafovea sequence processing in the E-Z reader model.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-27 Cooperative journals: 《心理学报》
Abstract： Compared with hearing readers, orthographic information and phonological information may play different roles in the word recognition process for hearing-impaired readers. As a communication mode for hearing-impaired readers, sign language may also affect their word recognition process. A large number of studies have examined the activation of orthographic representation, phonological representation, and sign language representation during visual word recognition in hearing-impaired readers. Previous studies have found that hearing-impaired readers could activate stable orthographic representations, but there were inconsistent results in the activation of phonological representations, whereas studies on hearing-impaired readers who primarily use sign language have found that they can activate stable sign language representations. Hearing-impaired readers grow up in a complex language environment, which leads to great individual differences in language experience and reading ability. However, previous works have not clearly identified the effect of language experience and reading ability on the cognitive mechanism of reading in hearing-impaired readers. Continuous attention to this problem will help to provide a reference to guide reading instruction for hearing-impaired readers. This study conducted two semantically related decision tasks to investigate the activation of orthographic, phonological, and sign language representations during Chinese visual word recognition in hearing-impaired college students. Orthographic and phonological representations play an important role in word recognition for hearing readers, but sign language representations are a phenomenon unique to deaf readers. In the current study we investigated the activation of orthographic and phonological representation in Experiment 1 and the activation of sign language representation in Experiment2. To investigate the effects of individual differences, according to their language experience and reading fluency, hearing-impaired college students were divided into deaf college students with oral language experience and higher reading ability (Skilled Oral Deaf, SOD), deaf college students with sign language experience but higher reading ability (Skilled Sign Deaf, SSD), and deaf college students with sign language experience and lower reading ability (Less-Skilled Sign Deaf, LSSD). The results of Experiment 1 showed that (a) hearing students showed a stable orthographic interference effect, whereas the phonological interference effect was weak. (b) The SOD group and the SSD group showed similar performance. Both showed a stable orthographic interference effect but did not show a significant phonological interference effect. (c) The SSD group and the LSSD group showed similar performance. Both groups showed a stable orthographic interference effect but did not show a phonological interference effect. Experiment 2 found that (a) hearing students did not show a sign language interference effect. (b) The SOD group and the SSD group differed in performance. The SSD group exhibited a sign language interference effect, whereas this effect was absent in the SOD group. (c) The SSD group performed similarly to the LSSD group. Both groups showed a stable sign language interference effect. Taken together, the following conclusions were drawn from the two studies: (a) after controlling for reading ability, language experience affected Chinese lexical recognition in deaf college students; lexical representation of oral deaf college students was similar to that of hearing readers., orthographic representations were mainly activated; and the activation of phonological and sign language representations was weak. Deaf college students who used sign language developed a unique cognitive mechanism, and they activated stable orthographic and sign language representations during visual word recognition. (b) After controlling for language experience, reading ability did not affect lexical representation during Chinese word recognition in hearing-impaired college students. (c) Based on the results of this study, combined with the representation and processing models of Chinese word recognition, we attempted to construct a cognitive model of Chinese word recognition for hearing-impaired college readers.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-27 Cooperative journals: 《心理学报》
Abstract： Thematic role assignment refers to the on-line processing of assigning semantic roles, such as assigning agents or patients, to arguments (i.e., nouns) related to the verb. Linguistic information provided by arguments (e.g., word order, or case marking), as well as lexical argument representation of the verb is used for assigning thematic roles. The Extended Argument Dependency Model (eADM) suggests that argument cues utilized to assign semantic roles vary across languages. For rigid word-ordering languages (e.g., English) with case marking, readers adopt a position-based assignment, according to which the initial argument is usually analyzed as an agent. By contrast, thematic role assignment in unrestricted word-ordering languages (e.g., German, Italian, Japanese, and Turkish) with case marking exhibits a morphology-based strategy. The eADM model also predicts a reversal of thematic role assignment when the verb’s argument representation contradicts with the argument cues, which is based on verb information and induces additional processing costs. Considerable evidence has demonstrated the language-specific weight on argument cues. However, it is unknown whether word order strongly affects thematic role assignment in Chinese (a rigid-ordering language with case marking) reading. In addition, the reanalysis of thematic roles proposed by the eADM model has only been tentatively explored in Spanish. Whether such reanalysis processing exists in other languages, especially in non-alphabetic languages like Chinese, is still lack of evidence. The present study examined the reliance on word order information in the existence of case marking information and the reanalysis of thematic roles when argument representation of the verb was in contradiction with cues of arguments in Chinese. The sentence structure (centered or preposed) and the type of control verb (subject-control or object-control) were manipulated. Sentences in the centered structure provided information of word order and case marking, while sentences in the preposed structure only provided case marking information. Argument representation of object-control verbs incompatible with the information of arguments would lead to a re-assignment of semantic roles. The argument representation of subject-control verbs compatible with the argument cues would cause no reanalysis. Fifty-four pairs of control verbs were selected, each of which was embedded into a centered-structure sentence and a preposed-structure sentence. Eye movements of 24 native Chinese speakers were recorded by the Eyelink Ⅱ eye tracker. Each participant read 54 experimental sentences, followed by a comprehension question. The results showed that the preposed structure sentences caused longer second-pass reading time and more total incoming regressions in the first noun, longer first-pass reading time in the second noun, and longer regression path duration in the verb region than the centered-structure sentences, which suggested the strategy of position-based assignment for Chinese readers. There were robust main effects of the types of control verb, in that longer first pass reading time, regression path duration, and total incoming regressions were observed in the verb region, and longer second-pass reading time and total incoming (outgoing) regressions were found in the post-verb region in the object control verb condition than in the subject control verb condition. These results indicated that the mismatch of verb argument representation and argument cues contributed to an extra processing load. In addition, interactions between sentence structure and types of control verb were also observed, with longer second-pass reading time and total incoming regression in the second noun and longer second-pass reading time in the verb region in the centered-structure sentences containing object control verbs than those containing subject control verbs. There were longer first-pass reading time and regression path duration in the post-verb region in the preposed-structure sentences in the object-control verb condition than in the subject-control verb condition. In conclusion, these findings indicate that Chinese readers depend on word order information heavily to assign thematic roles even when there is case marking; also, the mismatch between cues of arguments and the argument representation of control verbs in Chinese reading causes reanalysis of thematic roles. Such findings are in line with the claim of the eADM model.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-27 Cooperative journals: 《心理学报》
Abstract： Misinformation often continues to influence people’s beliefs and reasoning even after retracted—this persistence is termed the ‘continued influence effect of misinformation’ (CIEM). Both of the mental-model- updating hypothesis and the memory-retrieval-failure hypothesis attempt to explain this phenomenon. The neural substrates of CIEM are controversial, and results from different studies support different assumptions. The disputations may relate to neglection of potential contribution of inhibitory control in CIEM and of methodological differences between studies. This study aimed to investigate neural substrates and cognitive mechanism of CIEM using the functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) from the view of inhibition control. Thirty-one participants (10 males) were recruited in this study. They were instructed to read brief, fictional news reports and answer three inference questions after reading while lying in a 3.0T Siemens Prisma MRI scanner. Each participant needed to read 40 reports (20 reports in their retraction versions and 20 in their control versions). Each fictional report contained six sentences and derived retraction and control versions based on whether the second sentence contained misinformation. Pseudorandom uniform temporal jitter was used for this fMRI design. Imaging data were preprocessed and processed using SPM, RESTplus and DPABI toolbox to obtain the functional activities of the ROIs and their functional connectivity. Multi-comparison tests were conducted for brain activities induced by target sentence 5 (encoding phase) and three reasoning sentences (retrieval phase) under different versions. The results showed: (1) retractions elicited less activity in the left middle temporal gyrus (BA21/22) than control during encoding phase; and retractions also elicited less activity in the left middle frontal gyrus (L_MFG, BA10) and right anterior cingulate cortex (R_ACC, BA32) than control during retrieval phase. Additionally, activation at the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (L_DLPFC, BA9) in the retraction condition was marginally significantly different from that in the control condition during retrieval phase. No significant activation difference was observed across conditions in others ROI. (2) A marginally significantly negative correlation was found between functional metrics (Beta) of the left MFG in retraction condition and individuals’ interference scores. (3) With regard to functional connectivity, we compared the connectivity between two seeds (left MFG and right ACC) and the rest of the brain in control versus retraction condition during retrieval phase. Results demonstrated that the right ACC showed decreased functional connectivity with the bilateral inferior occipital gyrus (IOG) under retraction condition when compared to control condition. The left MFG showed similar decreased connectivity with the bilateral IOG under retraction condition when compared to control, but increased functional connectivity with right precentral gyrus under retraction condition when compared to control. The results suggest that the CIEM be related to semantic encoding failure during information comprehension and inhibition failure of misinformation during information retrieval. The mental-model-updating hypothesis and the memory-retrieval-failure hypothesis can explain the different phase of CIEM. The findings provide more experimental evidence for neural basis of CIEM and refine corresponding theoretical accounts, and provide neurological clues for further exploration of ways to reduce the negative impact of CIEM in the future.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-27 Cooperative journals: 《心理学报》
Abstract： Understanding the cognitive mechanisms underlying word segmentation has been an important focus for research on Chinese reading. Previous research shows that Chinese readers can identify words very efficiently even though the Chinese script does not use spaces between words or other visual cues to demarcate word boundaries. One possibility is that Chinese readers can make use of their knowledge of the positional frequency of characters (i.e., how often they are used as the first or second character in words) to facilitate the word segmentation and recognition. Nevertheless, this potential role for position frequency remains controversial. Accordingly, with the present research we used the lexical decision task and eye movements during reading to investigate the use of positional frequency information about the first and second character of two-character words in both visual word recognition and reading. Four experiments were conducted to explore the effects of character positional frequency. In Experiments 1a and 1b, we manipulated both first and second character positional frequency (high vs. low) for target words that were of either high or low lexical frequency. Sixty college students were instructed to perform visual lexical decision tasks on words and pseudo-words. In Experiment 2a and 2b, we used measures of eye movements to investigate the use of character positional frequency in natural sentence reading. Sixty college students were required to read sentences while their eye movements were recorded using an EyeLink 1000 eye-tracker (sampling rate = 1000 Hz). The results of Experiments 1a and 1b revealed an effect of first character positional frequency in both the accuracy and latency of lexical decisions only for target words with low lexical frequency, and no effect of second character positional frequency regardless of the lexical frequency of the target word. The results of Experiment 2a and 2b showed a clear effect of first character position frequency on reading times (gaze duration, regression path reading time, and total reading time) for target words of low lexical frequency only, and no effect of second character positional frequency for either high or low frequency target words. Participants made shorter response times and fixation duration in high character positional frequency condition than in low character positional frequency condition for target words with low lexical frequency. In sum, findings from both the lexical decision task and measures of eye movements in reading reveal a privileged role for first character positional frequency as a cue to word segmentation and recognition. However, this influence of character positional frequency depends on word frequency, and is only observed for words of lower lexical frequency. We argue that these findings support the augmented addressed morphology model theory of Chinese word recognition, and can help inform the development of a model of character positional processing model in Chinese reading.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-27 Cooperative journals: 《心理学报》
Abstract： Accurate perception of motion direction depends on current and prior information. However, it is not clear how the uncertainty of the current stimulus and the validity of expectation from prior information can be integrated into the decision-making for the directional perception. In our experiment, the validity of expectation from a cue, which appears before the stimulus, belongs to the proactive control system, while the uncertainty of stimulus, which changes by the signal-to-noise ratio, belongs to the reactive control system. It is unclear whether the proactive and reactive control systems engage in standard processing or work independently. In order to verify the integrated mechanism of the uncertainty of current sensory information and the validity of expectation from prior cue information on the perceptual decision of motion direction, two experiments were conducted. Experiment 1 employed random dot motion patterns (RDPs) to investigate the appropriate high and low uncertainty conditions. Participants should distinguish the moving direction of coherent dots (in the same direction) while noise dots move in a random direction. The PR (perceptual accuracy) values were compared for various ratios of coherent dots (100%, 80%, 70%, 60%, 20%, 0%). The results indicated that the PR of 60% ratio was significantly lower than that of 100%, while the PR of 20% ratio was significantly different from that of 0% and 60%. Consequently, 20% and 60% ratios can be considered as high and low uncertainty conditions in Experiment 2, respectively. Experiment 2 employed a task combined of associated learning and RDPs paradigm, in which a cue with high (90% correct) or low (10% correct) validity of expectation appeared before moving dots. Results showed that the PR of high uncertainty was significantly lower than that of low uncertainty and reflected a significant increase in PR with a valid cue, demonstrating an expectation effect. Moreover, there was considerable interaction between validity and uncertainty, while the expectation effect was found in both uncertainty conditions. However, the magnitude of expectation effect was lower in low uncertainty than in high uncertainty conditions, suggesting that uncertainty and validity can be influenced in standard cognitive processing. In summary, based on the present results, the prior and sensory information can be integrated into motion perception decision-making. The results can support the cooperation mechanism of proactive and reactive control systems and provide a theoretical basis to prevent traffic accidents. Investigating the effects of uncertainty and validity on the perceptual decision of motion direction of specific individuals (such as veteran or aged drivers) can be considered a future research topic.
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